Printing matters

How can we stop printers from just adding to the e-waste problem? Jane Turner looks at the options

This report primarily covers printers and all-in-ones (copiers that can print, scan and fax) but it also covers the main brands of scanners. Many of the companies featured also produce fax machines.

Nowadays, largely as a result of campaigning by development and human rights organisations, many people make a connection between the clothes they buy and the workers who make them. Consumers have some idea of the long hours of toil and discomfort behind the labels 'Made in Bangladesh' or 'Made in China'. The working conditions of the people who make computers and their components are not yet so well known, but they are in many respects similar.(5) NGO campaigns are now beginning to gain momentum and press attention for working conditions in the electronics industry.

Labour standards

Nowadays, largely as a result of campaigning by development and human rights organisations, many people make a connection between the clothes they buy and the workers who make them. Consumers have some idea of the long hours of toil and discomfort behind the labels 'Made in Bangladesh' or 'Made in China'. The working conditions of the people who make computers and their components are not yet so well known, but they are in many respects similar.(5) NGO campaigns are now beginning to gain momentum and press attention for working conditions in the electronics industry.

As in other sectors, all major IT companies are increasingly outsourcing production to contract manufacturers in markets with lower labour costs. South-east Asian countries, including China, Malaysia and the Philippines, have become major producers of electronic products. In 2003, electronic and electrical products accounted for 60% of total exports from the Philippines and for two-thirds of exports from Singapore. They are also the highest value export from Malaysia. There has been considerable investment in Mexico by multinational companies to facilitate entry into the US and Canadian markets. The IT sector uses toxic chemicals in manufacturing processes which, without proper management, can have a significant impact on the local environment and harm worker health and safety.(4)

The Code of Conduct category
Most campaigners agree that the best way to drive improvements in workers' rights is to encourage the development of Codes of Conduct which address workers' rights at supplier companies.

Of the companies in this report, virtually all of them receive the bottom rating for Code of Conduct. In the majority of cases, either there was no evidence that the company had a code or it did not respond to our request for a copy of it. Only two companies out of the twenty in this report - BT and Hewlett Packard - had a code and only BT's has been independently verified. Philips did not have a code but said it had plans to develop one.

Clean up your computer
In January 2004, The Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD) launched a campaign on poor labour practices in electronics factories in countries such as Mexico, Thailand and China, whose customers include multinational computer manufacturers. CAFOD's research alleges a range of employment practices that contravene internationally-recognised standards, including "humiliating strip searches, routine pregnancy testing and employment terms that undermine workers' rights".(4)

The 'Clean Up Your Computer' report focussed on the three biggest computer companies - Dell and IBM (which are not in this report) and Hewlett Packard - and compared their Codes of Conduct. It found Hewlett Packard's code to be superior to the other two but generally found that the companies' responses to this problem were inadequate for the following reasons: o the codes emphasise compliance with local laws rather than adherence to international labour standards o none of the codes provides unequivocally for freedom of association(5) For a copy of the full report, go to
www.cafod.org.uk/policypapers

A recent study by a European investment manager, ISIS, looked at twelve IT companies and assessed their performance on labour standards and environmental management. It looked at issues such as policy development, monitoring and disclosure. The report found that there were shortcomings in all areas but especially in relation to labour standards. The better performance in environmental management could be explained by increasing regulatory requirements, such as the WEEE EU Directive. It may also be because financial savings can be made by the company from, for example, more efficient resource consumption and energy saving in the manufacturing process.(4) Labour standards are a newer issue for companies. These findings are borne out by our own research for the Code of Conduct and Environmental Reporting categories.

The Environmental Reporting category

Only four of the twenty companies in this report - BT, Seiko Epson, Philips and Ricoh - receive the top rating in our Environmental Reporting category. Six get the middle rating because their reports are not independently verified. Four get the bottom rating for producing an Environment Report without performance targets or independent verification. Six more get the bottom rating because they don't appear to have a report at all.

Computer TakeBack Campaign

The Computer Take Back Campaign (CTBC), a US-based organisation affiliated to the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, publishes an annual 'Report Card' grading companies on the environmental quality of their equipment and their overall environmental performances.

Companies are rated by CTBC in four categories: extended producer responsibility (sustainable product design and takeback/recycling programmes), use of hazardous materials, worker health and safety and degree of accessibility of information.

The CTBC then grades each company as 'passing', 'needs improvement', 'poor' or 'failing', according to its score out of a total of 68. The following are the results of the 2002 Report Card (the latest available) for companies covered in this report:

Company name	Grade	Score (out of 68)
Canon	Needs improvement	33
NEC (Japan)	Needs improvement	31
Seiko Epson	Needs improvement	30
Matsushita	Needs improvement	30
HP/Compaq	Poor	23
OKI	Poor	22
Brother	Failing	19
Sharp	Failing	18
Samsung	Failing	17
Lexmark	Failing	14
Philips	Failing	12
(Europe)	Failing	0

The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition has also published reports on the export of electronic waste ("e-waste") to developing countries. Whereas under the Basel Convention the export of e-waste from Europe to developing countries is prohibited, much of America's e-waste is exported for 'recycling' to south-east Asia, particularly China. Lax enforcement of environmental laws and workers' exposure to high levels of toxic materials, as well as dumping of e-waste, have prompted a number of stakeholders to object on environmental and health grounds.(4)

The technology

Laser printers versus inkjets
In the 1980s, dot-matrix and laser printers were predominant, with inkjet technology not emerging in any significant way until the 1990s. The laser printer was introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1984. It worked in a similar way to a photocopier, the difference being the light source. With a photocopier and scanner a page is scanned with a bright light, while with a laser printer the light source is a laser. After that the process is much the same, with the light creating an electrostatic image of the page on a charged photoreceptor or drum, which in turn attracts toner in the shape of an electrostatic charge.(1)

Laser printers produce much better quality black text documents than inkjets, and they turn out more pages per month at a lower cost per page than inkjets.(1)

Most lasers use cartridge technology based on an organic photoconductive (OPC) drum, coated in light-sensitive material. During the lifetime of the printer, the drum needs to be periodically replaced as its surface wears out and print quality deteriorates. The toner cartridge is the other big consumable item in a laser printer. Sometimes the toner cartridge and the OPC drum are housed separately, but in the worst case, the drum is located inside the cartridge. This means that when the toner runs out, the whole drum containing the OPC cartridge needs to be replaced, which adds considerably to the running costs of the printer and produces large amounts of waste.

The situation is even worse with a colour laser - which can actually have up to nine separate consumable items (four colour toners, an OPC belt or drum, a developer unit, a fuser unit, fuser oil and a waste toner bottle).(1)

Some have tried to improve this situation by making drums more durable and eliminating all consumables except for toner. Kyocera, for instance, was the first manufacturer to produce a "cartridge-free" printer which uses a silicon drum which lasts for the lifetime of the printer, so the only item requiring regular replacement is the toner and even this comes in a package made from a non-toxic plastic, designed to be incinerated without releasing harmful gases.(1)

Although inkjets were available in the 1980s, it was only in the 1990s that prices dropped enough to bring the technology to the high street.(1)

Traditionally, inkjets have had one massive attraction over laser printers: their ability to produce colour and photographic-quality output cheaply. That is what makes them so popular with home users. The down side is that although inkjets are generally cheaper to buy than lasers, they are more expensive to maintain. Cartridges need to be changed more frequently and the special coated paper required to produce high-quality output is very expensive. When it comes to comparing the cost per page, inkjets can work out about ten times more expensive than laser printers.(1)

Which? magazine recommends that if you want to do photo printing, an ink jet is best and it does text well too. A black and white laser is best if you only want to do black and white text, because they are faster and cheaper to run and output better quality text. Colour laser printers are not very good for photos but can do more basic colour printing more quickly.(2)

All-in-ones
These machines are capable of printing, copying, faxing and scanning and even emailing. According to Xerox, the annual energy consumption of a Xerox multifunction system is 25 per cent less than the combined annual energy consumption of the individual Energy Star qualified copier, fax and printers it replaces. They also save on raw materials by having all the functions in one box.

However, Which? found that the quality of the outputs from these machines was not as good as from separate machines although they do save on space and cost less to buy than buying a number of separate machines.(3) All-in-one machines can have inkjet or laser printers and therefore have all the associated consumables - ink, toner, drums. If you don't need a fax machine in this age of email and the internet, you can buy all-in-ones without fax capability.

Scanners
Scanners enable you to digitalise photos, slides, negatives, drawings or text (using optical character recognition). You can then edit the image for printing or emailing. Most of the scanners on the market are flatbed models which allow you to scan from magazines and books. Sheet fed models are often found in all-in-one machines. Scanners do not require any consumables.

Reliability

Which? did a survey in 2002 of its readers and found that Hewlett Packard scored 'above average' on reliability whilst Canon, Epson and Lexmark scored 'average'.(2)

Environmental Impact

The criteria document for the Nordic Swan Ecolabel states that the main environmental impact of copying machines, printers, fax machines and all-in-ones occurs during their use and waste phases. The chief environmental problem associated with these machines is high energy consumption. A further important environmental impact is their consumption of paper.(6)

Large quantities of waste are generated when the products come to the end of their life cycle. Waste is also generated as a result of the replacement of parts that wear out, e.g. combined toner cartridges.(6)

Other environmental impacts are associated with the use of dangerous substances in the products such as flame retardants, heavy metals and plasticisers in plastics. Emissions of these substances largely take the form of leakage from waste disposal sites or through emissions to air in connection with incineration. The products may also represent a source of pollution in the working environment through the generation of heat, emissions to air and noise.(6)

An EU Directive on the restriction of hazardous substances in electrical equipment (RoHS) will ban the use of lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in new appliances from 1 July 2006. Although most of these substances are no longer used by the electronics industry, the ban includes the use of plastic recyclate containing PBBs or PBDEs.(7)

Many machines are now able to print out on both sides of the paper (duplexing) and to reduce several pages onto a single sheet. If such functions are made available to the user and are used when appropriate, they will serve to considerably reduce the environmental impact of copying and printing.(6)

Ecolabels

Three main European ecolabels have developed criteria which address all these environmental impacts. They are the German Blue Angel, the Nordic Swan and the Swedish TCO label.

Few information technology suppliers have applied for such eco-labels because they argue that there is little demand for "green" IT products among consumers.(4) Instead, they prefer standardised self-declarations of product information such as the Nordic NITO scheme or the relatively undemanding Energy Star label.(1)

Developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency, the Energy Star was adopted at EU level in 2001. It sets minimum requirements for energy consumption for a range of office equipment, including PCs, monitors, printers and faxes.(5)

But several board members are unhappy about the apparent lack of ambition in setting tough performance criteria. Some countries, including the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany, are also dissatisfied. The Austrian Energy Agency, for example, claims that the Energy Star standards for all office equipment are "obsolete", with 80% of equipment supplied by major manufacturers in the Austrian market in compliance.(5) For more information, check out
www.energystar.gov

Jan-Willem Scheijgrond, a spokesperson for EICTA, the European trade association for IT equipment manufacturers, argued that eco-labelling schemes were bureaucratic, costly and quickly outdated. But he acknowledged that public procurement and corporate purchasers are driving demand.(1) This is the reason that most of the machines that are ecolabelled are office machines. Brother and Kyocera-Mita are the only companies producing eco-labelled machines suitable for the home office.

The criteria
All three ecolabels share common criteria but each also has additional criteria. The common criteria are:

• maximum power consumption levels
• modular design to facilitate repairs and recycling
• a proportion of plastic and metal parts must be recyclable and labelled
• no PBB or PBDE halogenated flame retardants or chlorinated paraffins
• no cadmium, lead or mercury
• limits on dust and ozone emissions and noise levels

The additional criteria are listed below under each ecolabel.

TCO label
TCO Development, owned by a Swedish trade union, began producing eco-labels for office equipment in 1992 following concern about potential health risks to workers from computer monitors. It has since expanded to cover other computer equipment, printers and mobile phones.(1) The scheme appears to dominate the market for monitors, with over 2,000 models awarded the label, but has achieved little take-up for other products. So far only Brother has applied for and acquired the label for printers.(1)

The additional criteria required for a TCO label are:

• chlorinated plastics such as PVC, chlorinated solvents and freons (CFC, HCFC) are banned
• more stringent energy consumption criteria (eg. in stand-by mode power must not exceed 16W(1)). The Blue Angel and Nordic Swan criteria follow the weaker Energy Star standard.
• the manufacturing plant must be certified to ISO14001 or its European equivalent, EMAS, and the manufacturer must have an environmental policy.(1)
• ergonomics and design criteria take into account people with disabilities
• double-sided printing is recommended but not mandatory.(2)

To check out the full criteria for printers go to the TCO website

TCO labelled machines
Brother laser printers for small 'workgroups': HL-7050, HL-7050N, HL-6050DN, HL-6050N, HL-6050 Brother all-in-ones for 'workgroups': MFC-8820DN, MFC-8820D, MFC-8420, DCP-8025DN, DCP8025D, DCP-8020 All, except HL-6050, have duplexing as standard

Blue Angel
About 3,800 products and services from approximately 710 label users in Germany and abroad are entitled to bear the Blue Angel. The Blue Angel is the first and oldest environment-related label in the world for products and services. It was created in 1977 on the initiative of the German Federal Minister of the Interior and approved by the Ministers of the Environment of the national government and the federal states.

Once approved, eco-labelled products are reviewed every two or three years to reflect state-of-the-art developments in ecological technology and product design. The criteria for printers, copiers and multifunction devices were changed in 2003 which meant that the requirements for acquiring the Blue Angel ecolabel are now more demanding. As a result, no printers or copiers have yet been awarded the current Blue Angel ecolabel, only two multifunctional devices.

The additional criteria required for a Blue Angel label are:

• no AZO colorants in toners and inks o benzene, styrene and VOC emissions restricted
• must be able to use 100% post-consumer recycled paper
• spare parts must be available for five years
• drums must not contain cadmium, lead, mercury or selenium
• no harmful toners or inks
• manufacturer must take back old machine and toner cartridges and drums for reuse or recycling
• machine must be capable of duplexing either automatically or manually.

Full criteria

Blue Angel labelled all-in-ones: Konica Minolta business machines: Di 3510, Di 3510f

Nordic Swan
The Swan is the official Nordic ecolabel, introduced by the Nordic Council of Ministers in 1989. The green symbol is available for around 60 product groups, everything from washing-up liquid to furniture and hotels can carry the Swan label.

The label is usually valid for three years, after which the criteria are revised and the company must reapply for a licence so that products better suited to the environment are constantly being developed.

The additional criteria required for a Nordic Swan label are:

• use of some recycled or reused plastic parts
• benzene, styrene and VOC emissions restricted
• spare parts must be available for seven years
• drums must not contain cadmium, lead, mercury or selenium
• no harmful toners or inks
• CFCs, HCFCs, 1.1.1 trichloro-ethane or carbon tetrachloride must not be used in production
• phthalate and chlorinated plastic use restricted
• manufacturer must take back old machine and toner cartridges and drums for reuse or recycling
• machine must be capable of duplexing either automatically or manually

Full criteria

Nordic Swan labelled machines
Kyocera Mita b&w desktop laser printers
ECOSYS FS-1010 / FS-1050 (14 ppm), ECOSYS FS-1900 (18ppm) with duplex, ECOSYS FS-3800 (24 ppm) with duplex Long-life components: Drum is guaranteed to last for up to 500,000 pages or three years. In all Kyocera Mita models, the drum is separate from the toner. Konica Minolta business all-in-ones: Di251, Di351

Sharp business machines
All-in-ones: AR-163, AR-206, AR-235, AR-275, AR-C160, AR-C250, AR-C270, AR-C260M, AR-C260P, AR-M160, AR-M205, AR-M236, AR-M276, AR-M300N, AR-M350N, AR-M450N, AR-M300U, AR-M350U, AR-M450U, AR-M550U, AR-M550N, AR-M620U, AR-M620N Printers: AR-P350, AR-P450

Ozone

Laser printers, copiers and some plain paper fax machines rely on high voltages to make the toner powder stick to the drum before its transfer to paper. This process generates ozone.

The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere acts as an essential shield against the sun. But, at ground level, ozone is a toxic gas with a distinctive odour. It can irritate the eyes, nose and throat and cause lethargy, tiredness, loss of concentration, headaches and upper respiratory tract disorders. People who suffer from asthma are particularly susceptible.(4)

As a general rule it is best to avoid prolonged exposure and ensure that work areas are well ventilated. Ozone filters must be changed regularly and printers should not be grouped together with plain paper faxes and photocopiers. If extra air filtering is needed, you can buy air purifiers which filter out ozone. In addition, all printers should be positioned at least three feet away from staff with ventilation fans facing away from users.(4)

Refill not landfill

Remanufacturing cartridges
According to Waste Watch, in 1999 over 7 million toner printer cartridges were consumed in the UK. Three-quarters of these were thrown away, accounting for as much as 15,000 tonnes of waste plastic and metal. Recycling cartridges not only reduces waste, but also reduces the need for raw materials; each laser cartridge that is recycled conserves the equivalent of approximately one litre of oil.(10)

Most types of toner cartridge can be remanufactured. There are now more than 120 companies in the UK remanufacturing cartridges. The cartridges are completely dismantled and cleaned, any worn parts are replaced, and the drum either re-coated or replaced. They are then refilled with fresh toner, tested and sold with a guarantee. One in four cartridges sold in the UK is remanufactured. (10)

Some major companies which supply laser printers take back their own cartridges. However, they are not necessarily remanufactured, but broken up into their constituent parts, some sent for reprocessing and some discarded as waste. HP recycles returned HP LaserJet cartridges into products such as buttons, spectacle cases and bicycle stands. HP has recycled more than 46 million cartridges, diverting approximately 60,000 tonnes of waste from landfill around the world. However, this is less environmentally beneficial than remanufacturing.(10)

Some companies have introduced anti-recycling devices (ARDs) to their cartridges, for example the Lexmark Optra T cartridges and the HP 4100 cartridges as well as many Epson cartridges. These contain electronic chips similar to those found in phone cards, that interact with the printer's software. If the cartridge is remanufactured the printer unit will continue to display a "toner low" message. Wastewatch suggests that, when buying a new laser printer ensure that its cartridges can be remanufactured.(10)

Refilling cartridges

Inkjets
Refilling inkjet cartridges is straightforward and can be done on a DIY basis (with a syringe), with a number of companies supplying the ink and refilling equipment, although it is also possible to send them away for refilling.

Friends of the Earth warned that the refilling of printer cartridges could be wiped out unless the UK Government includes them in a new EU waste law which is due to be implemented in August. Printer cartridges contain chips which record the amount of ink left in them. But manufacturers are inserting a new type of 'killer chip' into the cartridges which means they cannot be reset when they are refilled with ink. This will make refilling impossible, and will be bad news for the environment as reuse is far better than the landfilling or recycling of empty cartridges. It will also be bad news for consumers because refilled cartridges are much cheaper than buying new ones.(9)

The problem could be resolved if the Government includes cartridges when it implements the EU Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Under Article 4 of the directive, equipment must not include any design features which prevent it from being re-used, unless there is a safety or environmental reason for doing so. But, the DTI currently defines printer cartridges as 'consumables', not `equipment'. Unless the Government changes its proposals, the reuse of printer cartridges could be wiped out. At the time of writing, consultation on the Directive was due to end.(9)

Lasers
It is also possible to refill toner cartridges at home using kits which enable you to pour toner into laser cartridges. While this is certainly the cheapest method of refilling your cartridges, readers may be concerned by the Carbon Black issue.

Carbon Black is a controversial amorphous carbon pigment, which is used almost universally as the pigment for any deep black products, from car tyres to paints. Concerns were raised over its safety after a group of Swedish scientists linked it with cancer in the early 1990s, while other studies have linked it with genetic mutation. Evaluations by the Health and Safety Executive in the late 1990s, based on a number of different studies, reveal that the initial fears about its carcinogenic effects were exaggerated and suggest that even in occupational use the material should not be considered toxic.(13) Toner is regarded by America's OSHA only as a particulate.(11) As such, toner dust can irritate the respiratory tract if inhaled.12

As always, it is best to use caution. The current recommendations are to avoid skin contact and use a dust mask to avoid inhalation of toner. Refill toner kits come with a mask and surgical gloves. If any of the material is spilt, it should be cleaned up with a damp cloth and hands should always be washed after completing the procedure.

What can you do?
Look out for the UK Cartridge Recyclers Association (UKCRA) label on printer cartridges - it indicates membership of UKCRA, a voluntary body which has its own standards. See links below for more info.

For information on refilling and remanufacturing cartridges, search the web for companies like
www.cartridgeworld.org, www.theinkfactory.co.uk or www.refilltoner.com

For a list of companies and charities that collect and recycle toner and ink jet cartridges check out the Waste Watch website.

Recycling machines

The EU Directive on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), currently being transposed into UK law, will require companies that manufacture electrical appliances or sell own-brand appliances to foot the bill for the refurbishment, recycling and recovery of those products that are collected for recycling.(7)

By 13 August 2005, local authorities must have set up collection or take-back schemes which allow users to return their waste products free of charge. Producers need to have financed these collection and disposal routes. The directive was intended to make distributors take back like for like products when a user is buying a new product - a straight swap if you like; however a caveat has been added to the legislative text that gives the producers an opt-out clause, so it remains to be seen how many provide this option.(8)

Different recycling/reuse and recovery targets must be met for various categories of appliances by 31 December 2006. For example, 75% of IT, telecommunications and consumer equipment must be recovered and 65% recycled or reused. (7)

Until then, Waste Watch advises that redundant machines should be reused. In addition to traditional second-hand outlets, there are a number of schemes looking at ways of passing on electronic equipment no longer required to other users. By this means, the life of products can be extended - a more environmentally desirable option than recycling (assuming the product is working efficiently). After reuse, the next best option is refurbishment and lastly recycling - breaking it down into its constituent parts and removing harmful and toxic elements. Check out Waste Watch for a list of UK IT refurbishers and recyclers.

60 second green guide use the draft or economy or toner saver setting on printers to save toner or ink use a duplex for double-sided printing or, manually, print the odd numbered pages first, turn over the paper and print the even pages use paper that's been printed on one side in the printer or fax machine buy a laser printer which has a separate drum and toner cartridge so that each part can be replaced separately buy a laser printer with a long-life drum refill ink and toner cartridges and buy remanufactured drum units set your printer's or copier's sleep mode, so when it's not actually printing/copying the energy consumption is minimal change ozone filters on copiers, laser printers and fax machines which use toner use emails and electronic fax facilities and don't print them out don't use fax cover sheets and set machine so it doesn't print a transmission report don't print hard copies of documents unless absolutely necessary - store them electronically buy second-hand machines. Drivers are usually available from the manufacturer send redundant machines to be recycled

References

1 ENDS Report, March 2003
2 www.tcodevelopment.com Printers criteria pdf, 29/11/99
3 http://www.blauer-engel.de/englisch/navigation/body_blauer_engel.htm
4 ENDS Report, January 2000
5 ENDS Report, November 2003, 346
6 Ecolabelling of Copying Machines, Printers, Fax Machines and Multifunctional Devices - Criteria document, Nordic Ecolabelling (September 2002)
7 ENDS Report, February 2004
8 Wasteline, Electrical and Electronic Equipment Information sheet September 2003
9 Friends of the Earth press release, 'KILLER CHIP' THREAT TO REFILL PRINTERS', Feb 10 2004
10 Wasteline, Recycling toner cartridges Information sheet, January 2002
11 www.refilltoner.com, March 2004
12 The Green Office Manual - Wastebusters Ltd, 2000
13 www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/

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